Metabolic syndrome and endothelial dysfunction in a population born small for gestational age relationship to growth and Gh therapy.

UNLABELLED: Being born small for gestational age (SGA) and a rapid increase in weight during early childhood and infancy have been strongly linked to metabolic syndrome. A transversal study was conducted on 167 pre-pubertal and 102 pubertal subjects; auxological parameters, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, laboratory data, and carotid-wall thickness (CA-IMT) were measured. RESULTS: Patients born SGA with spontaneous catch-up growth have higher values of BMI, blood pressure, HOMA index, and CA-IMT than those treated with GH and the appropriate-for-gestational age (AGA) group. In conclusion, subjects born SGA are at high risk of developing chronic diseases, including obesity, hypertension, insulin resistant, and endothelial dysfunction, at an early age, mainly those with good catch-up growth compared with the receiving GH because of negative catch-up growth. Our data is compared with published results.

Familial short stature and intrauterine growth retardation associated with a novel mutation in the IGF-I receptor (IGF1R) gene.

CONTEXT: IGF-I is essential for normal human growth and mediates its effects through the IGF1R. IGF1R mutations have been associated with varying degrees of intrauterine and postnatal growth retardation. OBJECTIVE: To identify IGF1R gene mutations in a short-statured family with intrauterine growth retardation and microcephaly. METHODS: Direct DNA sequencing was used to identify IGF1R mutations. Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification analyses were performed for deletions and duplications of all IGF1R exons. Functional studies were conducted to assess mutation pathogenicity. RESULTS: A novel heterozygous IGF1R missense mutation in exon 7 (c.A1549T, p.Y487F) was identified in a short-statured girl with severe prenatal growth retardation and microcephaly. The same mutation was also identified in her mother, who presented prenatal and postnatal growth failure, and her short-statured maternal grandmother, both of whom exhibited microcephaly. The index case showed a partial response to rhGH. Functional studies performed in dermal fibroblasts from the index case and her mother showed normal IGF-I binding; however, IGF-I activation of intracellular signalling measured as AKT and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation was markedly reduced, with patients' values being lower than those of her mother. IGF-I stimulation of DNA synthesis was significantly reduced compared with controls. CONCLUSION: Our results show a novel missense mutation in the IGF1R gene (c.A1549T, p.Y487F) associated with prenatal and postnatal growth failure and microcephaly in the context of familial short stature. The functional studies are in line with the inactivation of one copy of the IGF1R gene with variable expression within the same family.

Neurocognitive development of children born small for gestational age (SGA). An update.

The aim of the present study is to confirm that being born SGA is a serious risk for a negative neurocognitive development. 233 cases have been controlled yearly and longitudinally by the same investigator, some of them 11 times, showing 25,8 % an IQ less than 2 SD, being less affected the catch-up + group (15 %), compared to the catch-up - group (31,4 %). The GH therapy (n 64) started before the age of 6 (n 38) or after 6 (n 26), doesn't improve the negative outcome.

Differences between Spaniards and Ecuadorians in CYP2A6 allele frequencies: comparison with other populations.

This study was designed to investigate the potential differences between Spaniards and Ecuadorian Mestizo people regarding CYP2A6*1A, CYP2A6*1B1, CYP2A6*1x2A, CYP2A6*9A, and CYP2A6*4A variant alleles at the CYP2A6 gene and also to compare the observed frequencies with those previously reported in different ethnic groups. DNA from 234 Spaniard and 300 Ecuadorian subjects were analyzed by either PCR or PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Differences between Spaniards and Mestizo Ecuadorians were detected in relation to the frequencies of the alleles linked to either absent enzyme activity, CYP2A6*4A (4 and 7.1%, respectively), or reduced CYP2A6 enzyme activity, CYP2A6*9A (6.4 and 10.3%, respectively). CYP2A6*4A and CYP2A6*9A frequencies in Ecuadorians were higher than those in Africans or Caucasian groups and lower than those in Asians. This study provides, for the first time, the result of the analysis of CYP2A6 allele frequency in a South American population and demonstrates the presence of ethnic differences in CYP2A6 genetic variants between Spaniards and Mestizo Ecuadorians, which should be considered in allele-disease association studies and, in particular, in those involving CYP2A6 genetic polymorphisms and tobacco-related cancer.

Longitudinal pubertal growth according to age at pubertal growth spurt onset: data from a Spanish study including 458 children (223 boys and 235 girls).

BACKGROUND: Age at pubertal growth spurt (PGS) onset varies and is sex-dependent. We present anthropometric pubertal growth data for five 1-year interval age maturity groups: very early, early, intermediate, late and very late. METHODS: Longitudinal growth study of 458 healthy children (223 boys, 235 girls). Ages at PGS onset and at adult height attainment, total pubertal growth (TPG), and peak height velocity (PHV) were evaluated. PGS begins between the ages of 10 and 15 in boys and 8 and 13 in girls; children were allocated to the corresponding 1-year interval age maturity group. RESULTS: For each sex, the earlier the start of PGS onset, the higher were PHV and TPG gain. However, adult heights were similar among the five pubertal maturity groups. Height SDS values for mean values of the very early, early, late and very late maturity groups calculated according to data from the five pubertal maturity groups taken together as a single group differed from zero in both sexes, mainly during the pubertal years for the very early (> +1) and very late (> -1) maturers. These differences disappeared at adult height. CONCLUSIONS: Our data might contribute to better clinical evaluation of pubertal growth according to individual pubertal maturity tempo.

Children born small for gestational age: multidisciplinary approach.

The definition of a newborn SGA changes depending on which parameter is taken as reference. For the neonatologists who are the first to take care of these newborns the most used parameter in the past has been the weight that should be below the 10 centile for the reference standards. In the last years paediatric endocrinologists are more and more interested in the length of these newborns, a parameter more accurate to growth. This paper presents the last consensus statements regarding the definition of SGA newborns taken into consideration the length, the weight, both or them and even the head circumference.

Study of apoptosis and related proteins, CRH and hpGH in placentas of newborns small for gestational age (SGA).

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study is to quantify the expression of apoptotic genes and genes related to the development and growth in placentas of pregnancies with IUGR (intrauterine growth restriction) and normal placentas. We studied the expression of Bcl-2, Caspase3, hpGH (human placental growth hormone) and CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) genes in normal and IUGR placentas. In addition we have demonstrated this expression by immunohistochemical techniques. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Placentas of newborns with intrauterine infections, complicated pregnancies, congenital malformations and birth asphyxia were excluded. RNA extraction and purification. Total RNA was extracted and cleansed from the lysate using RNA wiz (Ambion) and Qiagen Rneasy Mini (Qiagen). cDNA synthesis. This assay was performed using the Retroscript Kit, Ambion. RT-PCR was performed with the LightCycler System 2.0 (Roche Diagnostics) and the LightCycler FastStart DNA Master Plus SYBR Green I. An immunochemical study was performed using the Envision Plus Dako protocol. RESULTS: Bcl-2, hpGH and CRH are down regulated in the SGA group in comparison to the control group. Caspase3 is up regulated in the SGA group in comparison to the control group. We demonstrated that in placentas from pregnancies with IUGR, expression of Bcl-2is diminished and expression of caspase 3 is augmented compared to normal placentas.

Growth and growth hormone treatment in short stature children born small for gestational age.

Persistent short stature is one of the most frequent complications of being born small for gestational age (SGA) as almost 15% of such children have a low adult height. Additionally, individuals born SGA may have low lean body mass and increased central adiposity which put them at risk of long-term morbidity related to insulin resistance and metabolic disease. Onset of puberty appears at a normal age but comes relatively early for their actual height. There are studies that show that the pubertal growth spurt is moderately decreased in SGA and some girls may experience advanced pubarche and menarche. We have retrospectively analyzed 64 untreated SGA children and we have observed that adult height was lower than target height and positively correlated with maternal height, target height and height at onset of puberty; the tempo of puberty was very similar between SGA and controls but pubertal growth spurt was lower in SGA than in controls. The pathophysiology of postnatal growth failure is complex and different anomalies in the GH-IGF axis had been described. The effect of GH therapy on linear growth and adult height has been extensively studied in the last 15 years. In the short term, GH treatment produces an acceleration of growth with a significant increment of height which is dose dependent during the first 3-4 years. The long-term response is less dose dependent and the vast majority of short SGA children reach an adult height within normal standards and adequate for their target height. There is an important variation in the growth response of SGA children to GH indicating that SGA represents a heterogeneous condition in which response during the first year is the most important predictor of subsequent growth response. GH appears to be safe at the current doses employed but monitoring of IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and glucose metabolism is mandatory during therapy.

Growth hormone does not alter CYP2A6 activity in growth hormone-deficient children.

A large number of metabolic alterations are increasingly being treated with growth hormone. Despite the fact that growth hormone is known to be the main regulator of several hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes in rodents, few studies deal with the effect of growth hormone on hepatic enzyme activities in human beings. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of growth hormone replacement therapy for 4 weeks on CYP2A6 activity in children, because changes in this enzyme activity may have important therapeutic and toxic consequences. A total of 31 growth hormone-deficient children (age range 4.1-13.1 years; mean age 9.88 +/- 2.89 years) participated. The genotypes of CYP2A6 gene, CYP2A6*1A, CYP2A6*1B, CYP2A6*4, CYP2A6*1x2 and CYP2A6*9, were determined by polymerase chain reaction. To assess the enzyme activity, we used caffeine as a probe drug at two points in time: before starting growth hormone therapy (Day 0) and after 4 weeks of growth hormone therapy (Day A). Caffeine and metabolite concentrations in urine were assayed by high-pressure liquid chromatography. The metabolite ratio 1,7-dimethilxanthine to 1,7-dimethylurate (17U/17X) served to indicate CYP2A6 activity. Median value and 95% confidence interval at baseline was 1.08 (0.98-1.24). The value after treatment was 1.08 (0.86-1.21). Data comparison between periods showed lack of statistically significant differences (P > 0.05). The relative change, measured by the ratio of medians and 90% confidence interval, was 1.02 (0.84-1.19). There were no significant differences when the ratio between genotype groups were compared. These results indicate that growth hormone replacement therapy of growth hormone-deficient children for 4 weeks does not modify the CYP2A6 activity and hence the efficacy or toxicity of the CYP2A6 substrate compounds.

CYP3A5*3 and CYP3A4*1B allele distribution and genotype combinations: differences between Spaniards and Central Americans.

The aim of this study was to detect genotypic differences between three populations of healthy volunteers from Northern Spain (204 subjects), Nicaragua (120 subjects), and El Salvador (112 subjects) regarding CYP3A4*1B and CYP3A5*3 polymorphisms. No significant differences were found by comparing allelic frequencies between the two Central American populations. The CYP3A5*3 allele frequency was significantly different (P < 0.01) between Central Americans (76%) and Spaniards (91%). By contrast, CYP3A4*1B allele was more prevalent among Central Americans (12.5%) than among North Spaniards (4%) (P < 0.01). Analysis of CYP3A4-3A5 genotype combinations revealed that individuals carrying CYP3A4*1B/CYP3A5*1 were more represented in Central Americans (16.9%) than in Spaniards (5.4%), suggesting a marked linkage disequilibrium. These data are compatible with a higher CYP3A enzyme activity in Central Americans as opposed to Spaniards and other white groups, which could imply differences in dose requirements for drugs metabolized by CYP3A and should be considered in allele-disease association studies.

Lack of effect of growth hormone replacement therapy on CYP1A2 and xanthine oxidase activities in growth hormone-deficient children.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) is being increasingly used for a number of metabolic alterations. GH is the main regulator of several hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes in rodents. In addition, GH could play a major role in defining the interface between pharmacogenetics and development. However, little is known about the effect of GH on the activity of hepatic enzymes in children. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of rhGH replacement therapy for 4 weeks on CYP1A2 and xanthine oxidase (XO) activities in children. METHODS: We used caffeine as a probe drug to assess the enzyme activities at two points in time: before starting GH treatment (day 0) and after 4 weeks on rhGH therapy (day A). A total of 31 GH-deficient children (age range: 4.1-13.1 years, mean age: 9.88+/-2.89 years) participated. Urinary concentrations of caffeine and metabolites were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to calculate the metabolite ratios: (AFMU+1X+1U)/17U for CYP1A2 and 1U/(1X+1U) for XO. RESULTS: Four weeks of GH substitution did not importantly alter the markers of the enzyme activities measured in this study. Median values and 95% confidence intervals (CI) at baseline were 5.17 (3.87-5.59) for the CYP1A2 ratio and 0.62 (0.56-0.65) for the XO ratio. These values, after treatment, were 4.57 (3.90-5.97) for the CYP1A2 marker and 0.62 (0.59-0.67) for the XO ratio. Data comparison between periods showed lack of statistically significant differences (P>0.05). The relative changes measured by the ratios of medians and 90% CI were 1.14 (0.90-1.31) and 0.99 (0.94-1.06) for CYP1A2 and XO, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The absence of significant changes in the markers of enzyme activities CYP1A2 and XO suggests that rhGH replacement therapy of GH-deficient children for 4 weeks could not noticeably modify the efficacy or toxicity of substrates of these metabolic enzymes.

Urinary mutagenicity, CYP1A2 and NAT2 activity in textile industry workers.

The two major causes of bladder cancer have been recognised to be cigarette smoke and occupational exposure to arylamines. These compounds are present both in tobacco smoke and in the dyes used in textile production. Aromatic amines suffer oxidative metabolism via P450 cytochrome CYP1A2, and detoxification by the polymorphic NAT2. The aim of the present work was to assess the association between occupational-derived exposure to mutagens and CYP1A2 or NAT2 activity. This cross-sectional study included 117 textile workers exposed to dyes and 117 healthy controls. The urinary mutagenicity was determined in 24 h urine using TA98 Salmonella typhimurium strain with microsomal activation S9 (MIS9) or incubation with beta-glucuronidase (MIbeta). Urinary caffeine metabolite ratios: AFMU+1X+1U/17U, and AFMU/AFMU+1X+1U were calculated to assess CYP1A2 and NAT2 activities, respectively. The results show that workers present a strikingly higher urine mutagenicity than controls (p<0.0001), despite the implementation of the new restrictive norms forbidding the industrial use of the most carcinogenic arylamines. Neither NAT2 nor CYP1A2 activity had any effect on the markers of internal exposure to mutagens, since no significant differences were observed when the urinary mutagenicity of slow and fast acetylators (p>0.05) was compared, and the urinary mutagenicity was not significantly associated with the CYP1A2 activity marker (r=0.04 and r=-0.01 for MIS9 and MIbeta, respectively). This study clearly indicates the need for further protective policies to minimise exposure to the lowest feasible limit in order to avoid unnecessary risks.

Effects of growth hormone deficiency and rhGH replacement therapy on the 6beta-hydroxycortisol/free cortisol ratio, a marker of CYP3A activity, in growth hormone-deficient children.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of both growth hormone deficiency (GHD) and rhGH replacement therapy on CYP3A activity as well as the potential influence of gender. METHODS: The sample consisted of 35 GHD children (16 males and 19 females), aged 2.9-13.1 years, and a control group of 35 healthy children matched for age and sex. The urinary ratio 6beta-hydroxycortisol/free cortisol was used as a marker of CYP3A activity. In patients, urine samples were collected at two times, prior to starting rhGH replacement treatment and 30 days after beginning therapy. RESULTS: A significantly higher metabolic activity in GHD children was observed in relation to controls ( P=0.0001) without sex differences. Paired comparisons demonstrated a sexually dimorphic effect of rhGH therapy on the CYP3A activity. While boys displayed a significant decrease ( P=0.003), girls showed no significantly different values of CYP3A marker ( P>0.05). Unpaired comparison between controls and GHD children after therapy demonstrated absence of significant differences in boys ( P>0.05) and a strikingly higher activity in girls ( P=0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The data suggests that: (a) GHD in children increases CYP3A activity in a non-sex-dependent manner, (b) rhGH treatment for 30 days to GHD children results in a sexually dimorphic effect on CYP3A activity, with a significant decrease in males toward normalization in relation to controls and non-significant changes in females. The results of this study may have important clinical implications for GHD children, since changes in CYP3A activity importantly affect the metabolism of both steroid hormones and CYP3A substrate drugs.

Omeprazole treatment: genotoxicity biomarkers, and potential to induce CYP1A2 activity in humans.

Omeprazole is one of the most used acid-suppressing medications. This fact emphasizes the questions concerning the safety of this compound. Healthy volunteers (n=33) were included in this prospective study. All study subjects were analysed for their CYP2C19 genotype. Of the 33 individuals, 24 were homozygous for the wild type CYP2C19*1 allele, 7 were heterozygous for the CYP2C19*2 variant allele, and 2 were homozygous for the CYP2C19*2 variant allele. Before and after 14 days of omeprazole treatment at a daily dose of 20 mg, one blood sample was taken from each individual to determine five cytogenetic biomarkers of genotoxicity: chromosome aberrations, micronuclei, proliferating rate index, sister chromatid exchanges, and mitotic index. The only significant change was that of a weak increase in micronuclei count after treatment in relation to baseline values (day 0) (P = 0.026). To assess the potential of omeprazole to induce P450 CYP1A2, the urinary ratio AFMU+1X+1U/17U in the interval of 4-5 hours after caffeine intake was calculated twice (days 0 and 15), using the caffeine test in 27 of the 33 individuals. This result suggests that omeprazole does not increase CYP1A2 activity after 14 days of treatment.

Frequency distribution of C3435T mutation in exon 26 of the MDR1 gene in a Spanish population.

P-glycoprotein (PGP) is a transmembrane efflux transporter with an important role in drug therapy. The level of PGP expression leads to relevant consequences in terms of efficacy and toxicity by modulating drug disposition. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in exon 26 of the gene C3435T was recently associated to PGP levels and substrate uptake. Persons who were homozygous for the T-allele had significantly decreased PGP expression compared with C/C persons. Due to this fact and bearing in mind the important differences among populations regarding the frequencies of persons carrying mutations affecting drug disposition, the authors wanted to study the prevalence of this genetic trait in their population. DNA samples from 408 persons were assayed by a PCR-RFLP method. The results showed that the distributions of the C/C, T/T, and C/T genotypes in the Spanish population were 26%, 22%, and 52%, respectively. With regard the C-allele frequency, which has been studied in several populations, the result in their population was 52%, significantly lower (P < 0.0001) than that found in African populations and similar to several Asian and Caucasian (UK) populations (P > 0.05). By contrast, the C-allele frequency in southwest Asian, German, and Portuguese populations was significantly lower than in the Spanish population (P < 0.001, P < 0.01, and P < 0.05, respectively). The great differences found between their population and others, such as the African and southwest Asian populations, could have important therapeutic implications when drugs that are a substrate of PGP are used.

Influence of the urine flow rate on some caffeine metabolite ratios used to assess CYP1A2 activity.

Five established metabolite ratios (MRs) to measure P450 CYP1A2 activity--MR1 (17X + 17U)/137X, MR2 (AFMU + 1X + 1U)/17U, MR3 (17X/137X), MR4 (AFMU + 1X + 1U + 17X + 17U)/137X, and MR5 (AFMU + 1X + 1U)/17X--were calculated in urine 4-5 hours after caffeine intake. First, to assess the potential of omeprazole to induce CYP1A2 activity, a caffeine test was performed in 27 subjects on two occasions: before and after 14 days on omeprazole (20 mg/day). Samples of urine were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to quantify caffeine and metabolites used to calculate the different caffeine MRs. MR1, MR3, and MR4 were enhanced after treatment; the percentage of change was inversely associated with that of the urine flow, with r values of -0.48, -0.49, and -0.47, respectively. However, MR2 or MR5 were not modified. To determine the reason for these contradictory results, the authors analyzed data of metabolites, ratios, and their components (numerators and denominators) from 152 subjects (who underwent one caffeine test) and their relationship with the urinary flow. Caffeine concentration in urine was the only compound nondependent on the urine flow. Consistently, ratios containing caffeine (MR1, MR3, and MR4) were highly influenced by the rate of urine excretion, since the flow dependence of their numerators is not canceled out by that of caffeine in their denominators. The dependency of the caffeine excretion on renal factors may explain the opposite results found with the different ratios in the aforementioned prospective study of drug interaction, the absence of closer correlations of the five MRs to each other, the discrepancies about the type of frequency distribution of the different MRs (either normal or multimodal), and the higher sensitivity of MR2 to detect gender differences in CYP1A2 activity found in this study. In summary, the data clearly emphasize the need for a strict control of the liquid intake to avoid high urine flows when MRs containing caffeine are used to assess CYP1A2 activity, especially in studies of drug interactions.

Insulin-like growth factors in childhood-onset Gaucher disease.

There is a high prevalence of growth retardation in children with type 1 Gaucher disease. The cause of this poor growth is not yet known; however, studies have shown acceleration of growth with enzyme replacement therapy (ERT). IGF are recognized as important determinants of somatic growth. It has been proven that chronic diseases with liver involvement might cause IGF deficiency. The aim of this study was to assess the IGF system in patients with childhood-onset Gaucher disease, before and after ERT, and its association with other clinical and analytical parameters. Twenty-two patients with type I Gaucher disease were included. The diagnosis was established before 14 y of age in all patients. Baseline determinations of total IGF-I, free IGF-I, and IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3) were obtained in 19 patients before starting ERT at a mean age of 13.8 +/- 11.2 y. A Spearman test was performed to establish the association with other clinical and analytical parameters. In a group of 13 patients receiving IGF, changes were evaluated during the initial 2 y of treatment. A Wilcoxon test was performed for the statistical analysis. Total IGF-I, free IGF-I, and IGFBP-3 were expressed as SD scores (SDS). We found low levels of IGF and its binding proteins before ERT. A significant association was found between the total IGF-I SDS before treatment and the age-adjusted severity score index: r = -0.62, p < 0.05. Total IGF-I and IGFBP-3 SDS correlated negatively with the presence of the L444P mutation (r = -0.53 and -0.5, respectively, p < 0.05). Height SDS correlated with total IGF-I and IGFBP-3 SDS in eight children (r = 0.84 and 0.78, respectively, p < 0.05). Total IGF-I SDS increased from -1.8 +/- 0.8 to -0.8 +/- 1.4 (p = 0.005) and free IGF-I increased from -1.2 +/- 1 to 1.1 +/- 2.1 after 12 +/- 6.8 mo (p = 0.011) of ERT. IGFBP-3 SDS increased from -1.3 +/- 0.6 to -0.2 +/- 1.2 (p = 0.012) after 12 +/- 4.5 mo of ERT. Type 1 Gaucher disease is associated with low levels of IGF and its binding proteins, which could be a consequence of liver involvement. Total IGF-I deficiency is associated with the severity of the illness. Growth retardation in pediatric patients with Gaucher disease is related to the alterations in IGF axis. Total IGF-I and IGFBP-3 are the two parameters that better correlate with height before treatment. ERT results in significant increase of total IGF-I, free IGF-I, and IGFBP-3 during the first year of treatment.

Resonancia magnética renal / Magnetic resonance imaging of the kidney

OBJETIVOS: Establecer el papel de la RM en el estudio de la patología renal, valorando las indicaciones, ventajas e inconvenientes de ésta. Realizar una breve descripción de las principales técnicas de estudio mediante RM. Mostrar las características anatómicas que presenta el riñón en RM y su comportamiento dinámico tras la administración de contraste. Presentar la semiología radiológica que poseen las diferentes entidades patológicas renales en el estudio mediante RM. MÉTODOS: Las imágenes que se presentan han sido realizadas con un aparato GE MR 0, 5 T. Las técnicas utilizadas han sido secuencias espin-eco (SE) ponderadas en T1 y T2 y secuencias eco-gradiente (GRE), según los protocolos desarrollados en el texto. CONCLUSIONES: La elevada capacidad de resolución espacial que posee la RM, hace de esta técnica una prueba muy útil en el estudio de la patología renal. El coste y la limitación de la prueba en cuanto a su disponibilidad, reducen la indicación de los estudios a aquellos procesos que no han podido ser diagnosticados adecuadamente por otras pruebas de imagen (US y TC) y en aquellos enfermos en los que está contraindicado el uso de contrastes iodados (p.ej. alergia al iodo o insuficiencia renal) o de radiaciones ionizantes (p.ej. embarazadas). La RM posee una elevada fiabilidad diagnóstica en el estudio de extensión de los procesos tumorales renales. Las técnicas de angiografía y urografía por RM permiten una correcta valoración de las estructuras vasculares y colectoras, de forma no invasiva y sin necesidad de utilizar contrastes iodados (AU)